Control of pests and weeds by natural Enemies

Biological control - utilizing a population of natural enemies to seasonally or permanently suppress pests - is not a new concept. The cottony cushion scale, which nearly destroyed the citrus industry of California, was controlled by an introduced predatory insect in the 1880s. Accelerated invasions by insects and spread of weedy non-native plants in the last century have increased the need for the use of biological control. Use of carefully chosen natural enemies has become a major tool for the protection of natural ecosystems, biodiversity and agricultural and urban environments.

This book offers a multifaceted yet integrated discussion on two major applications of biological control: permanent control of invasive insects and plants at the landscape level and temporary suppression of both native and exotic pests in farms, tree plantations, and greenhouses. Written by leading international experts in the field, the text discusses control of invasive species and the role of natural enemies in pest management.

This book is essential reading for courses on Invasive Species, Pest Management, and Crop Protection. It is an invaluable reference book for biocontrol professionals, restorationists, agriculturalists, and wildlife biologists.

Further information and resources can be found on the Editor's own website at: www.invasiveforestinsectandweedbiocontrol.info/index.htm








TopTable of Contents
Preface
Part I: Scope of biological control:
1. Introduction
2. Types of biological control, targets, and agents
What is biological control?
Permanent control over large areas
Temporary pest suppression in production areas
Kinds of targets and kinds of agents
Part II: Kinds of natural enemies:
3. Parasitoid diversity and ecology
What is a parasitoid?
Terms and processes
Some references to parasitoid families
Groups of parasitoids
Finding hosts
Host recognition and assessment
Defeating host defenses
Regulating host physiology
Patch-time allocation
4. Predator diversity and ecology
Non-insect predators
Major groups of predatory insects
Overview of predator biology
Predator foraging behavior
Predators and pest control
Effects of alternative foods on predator impact
Interference of generalist predators with classical biological control agents
Predator and prey defense strategies
5. Weed biocontrol agent diversity and ecology
The goal of weed biological control
Terms and processes
Herbivory and host finding
Herbivore guilds
Groups of herbivores and plant pathogens
6. Arthropod pathogen diversity and ecology
Bacterial pathogens of arthropods
Viral pathogens of arthropods
Fungal pathogens of arthropods
Nematodes attacking arthropods
Generalized arthropod pathogen life cycle
Epidemiology: what leads to disease outbreaks?
Part III: Invasions: why biological control is needed:
7. The invasion crisis
Urgency of the invasion crisis
Case histories of four high-impact invaders
The extent of harmful impact by invaders
How do invasive species get to new places?
Why do some invasions succeed but others fail?
Invader ecology and impact
8. Ways to suppress invasive species
Prevention: heading off new invasions through sound policy
Eradication based on early detection
Invaders that do no harm
Control of invasive pests in natural areas
Factors affecting control in natural areas
Control of invasive species in crops
Part IV: Natural enemy introductions: theory and practice:
9. Interaction webs as the conceptual framework for classical biological control
Terminology
Forces setting plant population density
Forces setting insect population density
Predictions about pests based on food webs
10. The role of population ecology and population models in biological control: Joseph Elkinton (University of Massachusetts)
Basic concepts
Population models
11. Classical biological control
Introduction
Classical biological control
New-association biological control
Summary
12. Weed biological control
Differences and similarities between weed and arthropod programs
Why plants become invasive
Selecting suitable targets for weed biological control
Conflicts of interest in weed biological control
Faunal inventories: finding potential weed biological control agents
Safety: "will those bugs eat my roses?"
Pre-release determination of efficacy
How many agents are necessary for weed control?
Release, establishment, and dispersal
Evaluation of impacts
Non-target impacts
When is a project successful?
Conclusions
Part V: Tools for classical biological control:
13. Foreign exploration
Planning and conducting foreign exploration
Shipping natural enemies
Operating a quarantine laboratory
Managing insect colonies in quarantine
Developing petitions for release into the environment
14. Climate matching
Climate matching
Inductive modeling: predicting spread and incursion success
Deductive modeling: predicting spread and incursion success
Conclusions
15. Molecular tools: Richard Stouthamer (University of California Riverside)
Types of molecular data
Important biological control issues that molecular techniques can address
Conclusions
Part VI: Safety:
16. Non-target impacts of biological control agents
Biological control as an evolving technology
The amateur to early scientific period (1800-1920)
A developing science makes some mistakes (1920-70)
Broadening perspectives (1970-90)
Current practice and concerns
"Re-greening" biological control
17. Predicting natural enemy host ranges
Literature records
Surveys in the native range
Laboratory testing to estimate host ranges
Interpretation of tests
Examples of host-range estimation
Risk assessment
18. Avoiding indirect non-target impacts
Kinds of potential indirect effects
Can risk of indirect impacts be reduced by predicting natural enemy efficacy?
Part VII: Measuring natural enemy impacts on pests:
19. Field colonization of natural enemies
Limitations from the agent or recipient community
Managing release sites
Quality of the release
Caging or other release methods
Persistence and confirmation
20. Natural enemy evaluation
Natural enemy surveys in crops
Pre-release surveys for classical biological control
Post-release surveys to detect establishment and spread of new agents
Post-release monitoring for non-target impacts
Measurement of impacts on the pest
Separating effects of a complex of natural enemies
Economic assessment of biological control
Part VIII: Conserving biological control agents in crops:
21. Protecting natural enemies from pesticides
Problems with pesticides
Super pests and missing natural enemies
Dead wildlife and pesticide residues in food
Cases when pesticides are the best tool
How pesticides affect natural enemies
Seeking solutions: physiological selectivity
Pesticide-resistant natural enemies
Ecological selectivity: using non-selective pesticides with skill
Transgenic Bt crops: the ulimate ecologically selective pesticide
22. Enhancing crops as natural enemy environments
Problem 1: unfavorable crop varieties
Solution 1: breeding natural enemy-friendly crops
Problem 2: crop fields physically damaging to natural enemies
Solution 2: cover crops, mulching, no till farming, strip harvesting
Problem 3: inadequate nutritional sources
Solution 3: adding nutrition to crop environments
Problem 4: inadequate reproduction opportunities
Solution 4: creating opportunities for contact with alternative hosts or prey
Problem 5: inadequate sources of natural enemy colonists
Solution 5: crop-field connectivity, vegetation diversity, and refuges
Other practices that can affect natural enemies
Conclusions
Part IX: Biopesticides:
23. Microbial pesticides: issues and concepts
History of microbial insecticides
What makes a pathogen a likely biopesticide?
Overview of options for rearing pathogens
Agent quality: finding it, keeping it, improving it
Measuring the efficacy of microbial pesticides
Degree of market penetration and future outlook
24. Use of arthropod pathogens as pesticides
Bacteria as insecticides
Fungi as biopesticides
Viruses as insecticides
Nematodes for insect control
Safety of biopesticides
Part X: Augmentative biological control:
25. Biological control in greenhouses
Historical beginnings
When are greenhouses favorable for biological control?
Natural enemies available from the insectary industry
Growers' commitment to change
Requirements for success: efficacy and low cost
Methods for mass rearing parasitoids and predators
Practical use of natural enemies
Programs with different biological control strategies
Integration of multiple biocontrol agents for several pests
Safety of natural enemy releases in greenhouses
26. Augmentative release of natural enemies in outdoor crops
Trichogramma wasps for moth control
Use of predatory phytoseiid mites
Control of filth flies
Other examples of specialized agents
Generalist predators sold for non-specific problems
Part XI: Other targets and new directions:
27. Vertebrate pests
Predators as vertebrate control agents
Parasites as vertebrate control agents
Pathogens as vertebrate control agents
New avenues for biological control of vertebrates
Conclusions
28. Expanding the biological control horizon: new purposes and new targets
Targeting weeds and arthropod pests of natural areas
Targeting "non-traditional" invasive pests
Conclusions
29. Future directions
Classical biological control
Conservation biological control
Augmentation biological control
Biopesticides
Conclusions
References
Index

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